@node Strings and Characters
@chapter Strings and Characters

@c Copyright (C) 2009--2026 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

@c Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
@c under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or
@c any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no
@c Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.  A
@c copy of the license is at <https://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl-1.3.en.html>.

@c Written by Bruno Haible.

This chapter describes the APIs for strings and characters, provided by Gnulib.

@menu
* Strings::
* Characters::
@end menu

@node Strings
@section Strings

Several possible representations exist for the representation of strings
in memory of a running C program.

@menu
* C strings::
* Iterating through strings::
* Strings with NUL characters::
* String Functions in C Locale::
* Comparison of string APIs::
@end menu

@node C strings
@subsection The C string representation

The classical representation of a string in C is a sequence of
characters, where each character takes up one or more bytes, followed by
a terminating NUL byte.  This representation is used for strings that
are passed by the operating system (in the @code{argv} argument of
@code{main}, for example) and for strings that are passed to the
operating system (in system calls such as @code{open}).  The C type to
hold such strings is @samp{char *} or, in places where the string shall
not be modified, @samp{const char *}.  There are many C library
functions, standardized by ISO C and POSIX, that assume this
representation of strings.

A @emph{character encoding}, or @emph{encoding} for short, describes
how the elements of a character set are represented as a sequence of
bytes.  For example, in the @code{ASCII} encoding, the UNDERSCORE
character is represented by a single byte, with value 0x5F.  As another
example, the COPYRIGHT SIGN character is represented:
@itemize
@item
in the @code{ISO-8859-1} encoding, by the single byte 0xA9,
@item
in the @code{UTF-8} encoding, by the two bytes 0xC2 0xA9,
@item
in the @code{GB18030} encoding, by the four bytes 0x81 0x30 0x84 0x38.
@end itemize

@noindent
Note: The @samp{char} type may be signed or unsigned, depending on the
platform.  When we talk about the "byte 0xA9" we actually mean the
@code{char} object whose value is @code{(char) 0xA9}; we omit the cast
to @code{char} in this documentation, for brevity.

In POSIX, the character encoding is determined by the locale.  The
locale is some environmental attribute that the user can choose.

Depending on the encoding, in general, every character is represented by
one or more bytes (up to 4 bytes in practice -- but
use @code{MB_LEN_MAX} instead of the number 4 in the code).
@cindex unibyte locale
@cindex multibyte locale
When every character is represented by only 1 byte, we speak of an
``unibyte locale'', otherwise of a ``multibyte locale''.

It is important to realize that the majority of Unix installations
nowadays use UTF-8 as locale encoding; therefore, the
majority of users are using multibyte locales.

Three important facts to remember are:

@cartouche
@emph{A @samp{char} is a byte, not a character.}
@end cartouche

As a consequence:
@itemize @bullet
@item
The @posixheader{ctype.h} API, that was designed only with unibyte
encodings in mind, is useless nowadays for general text processing; it
does not work in multibyte locales.
@item
The @posixfunc{strlen} function does not return the number of characters
in a string.  Nor does it return the number of screen columns occupied
by a string after it is output.  It merely returns the number of
@emph{bytes} occupied by a string.
@item
Truncating a string, for example, with @posixfunc{strncpy}, can have the
effect of truncating it in the middle of a multibyte character.  Such
a string will, when output, have a garbled character at its end, often
represented by a hollow box.
@end itemize

@cartouche
@emph{Multibyte does not imply UTF-8 encoding.}
@end cartouche

While UTF-8 is the most common multibyte encoding, GB18030 is also a
supported locale encoding on GNU systems (mostly because it is a Chinese
government standard, last revised in 2022).

@cartouche
@emph{Searching for a character in a string is not the same as searching
for a byte in the string.}
@end cartouche

Take the above example of COPYRIGHT SIGN in the @code{GB18030} encoding:
A byte search will find the bytes @code{'0'} and @code{'8'} in this
string.  But a search for the @emph{character} "0" or "8" in the string
"@copyright{}" must, of course, report ``not found''.

As a consequence:
@itemize @bullet
@item
@posixfunc{strchr} and @posixfunc{strrchr} do not work with multibyte
strings if the locale encoding is GB18030 and the character to be
searched is a digit.
@item
@posixfunc{strstr} does not work with multibyte strings if the locale
encoding is different from UTF-8.
@item
@posixfunc{strcspn}, @posixfunc{strpbrk}, @posixfunc{strspn} cannot work
correctly in multibyte locales: they assume the second argument is a
list of single-byte characters.  Even in this simple case, they do not
work with multibyte strings if the locale encoding is GB18030 and one of
the characters to be searched is a digit.
@item
@posixfunc{strsep} and @posixfunc{strtok_r} do not work with multibyte
strings unless all of the delimiter characters are ASCII characters
< 0x30.
@item
The @posixfunc{strcasecmp}, @posixfunc{strncasecmp}, and
@posixfunc{strcasestr} functions do not work with multibyte strings.
@end itemize

Workarounds can be found in Gnulib, in the form of @code{mbs*} API
functions:
@itemize @bullet
@item
Gnulib has functions @func{mbslen} and @func{mbswidth} that can be used
instead of @posixfunc{strlen} when the number of characters or the
number of screen columns of a string is requested.
@item
Gnulib has functions @func{mbschr} and @func{mbsrrchr} that are like
@posixfunc{strchr} and @posixfunc{strrchr}, but work in multibyte
locales.
@item
Gnulib has a function @func{mbsstr} that is like @posixfunc{strstr}, but
works in multibyte locales.
@item
Gnulib has functions @func{mbscspn}, @func{mbspbrk}, @func{mbsspn} that
are like @posixfunc{strcspn}, @posixfunc{strpbrk}, @posixfunc{strspn},
but work in multibyte locales.
@item
Gnulib has functions @func{mbssep} and @func{mbstok_r} that are like
@posixfunc{strsep} and @posixfunc{strtok_r} but work in multibyte
locales.
@item
Gnulib has functions @func{mbscasecmp}, @func{mbsncasecmp},
@func{mbspcasecmp}, and @func{mbscasestr} that are like
@posixfunc{strcasecmp}, @posixfunc{strncasecmp}, and
@posixfunc{strcasestr}, but work in multibyte locales.  Still, the
function @code{ulc_casecmp} is preferable to these functions.
@end itemize

@cartouche
@emph{A C string can contain encoding errors.}
@end cartouche

Not every NUL-terminated byte sequence represents a valid multibyte
string.  Byte sequences can contain encoding errors, that is, bytes or
byte sequences that are invalid and do not represent characters.

String functions like @code{mbscasecmp} and @code{strcoll} whose
behavior depends on encoding have unspecified behavior on strings
containing encoding errors, unless the behavior is specifically
documented.  If an application needs a particular behavior on these
strings it can iterate through them itself, as described in the next
subsection.

@node Iterating through strings
@subsection Iterating through strings

For complex string processing, string functions may not be enough, and
you need to iterate through a string while processing each (possibly
multibyte) character or encoding error in turn.  Gnulib has several
modules for iterating forward through a string in this way.  Backward
iteration, that is, from the string's end to start, is not provided,
as it is too hairy in general.

@mindex mbiter
@mindex mbiterf
@mindex mbuiter
@mindex mbuiterf
@mindex mcel
@itemize
@item
The @code{mbiter} module iterates through a string whose length
is already known.  The string can contain NULs and encoding errors.
@item
The @code{mbiterf} module is like @code{mbiter}
except it is more complex and typically faster.
@item
The @code{mbuiter} module iterates through a C string whose length
is not a-priori known.  The string can contain encoding errors and is
terminated by the first NUL.
@item
The @code{mbuiterf} module is like @code{mbuiter}
except it is more complex and typically faster.
@item
The @code{mcel} module is simpler than @code{mbiter} and @code{mbuiter}
and can be faster than even @code{mbiterf} and @code{mbuiterf}.
It can iterate through either strings whose length is known, or
C strings, or strings terminated by other ASCII characters < 0x30.
@item
The @code{mcel-prefer} module is like @code{mcel} except that it
causes some other modules to be based on @code{mcel} instead of
on the @code{mbiter} family.
@end itemize

The choice of modules depends on the application's needs.  The
@code{mbiter} module family is more suitable for applications that
treat some sequences of two or more bytes as a single encoding error,
and for applications that need to support obsolescent encodings on
non-GNU platforms, such as CP864, EBCDIC, Johab, and Shift JIS.
In this module family, @code{mbuiter} and @code{mbuiterf} are more
suitable than @code{mbiter} and @code{mbiterf} when arguments are C strings,
lengths are not already known, and it is highly likely that only the
first few multibyte characters need to be inspected.

The @code{mcel} module is simpler and can be faster than the
@code{mbiter} family, and is more suitable for applications that do
not need the @code{mbiter} family's special features.

@mindex mcel-prefer
The @code{mcel-prefer} module is like @code{mcel} except that it also
causes some other modules, such as @code{mbscasecmp}, to use
@code{mcel} rather than the @code{mbiter} family.  This can be simpler
and faster.  However, it does not support the obsolescent encodings,
and it may behave differently on data containing encoding errors where
behavior is unspecified or undefined, because in @code{mcel} each
encoding error is a single byte whereas in the @code{mbiter} family a
single encoding error can contain two or more bytes.

If a package uses @code{mcel-prefer}, it may also want to give
@command{gnulib-tool} one or more of the options
@option{--avoid=mbiter}, @option{--avoid=mbiterf},
@option{--avoid=mbuiter} and @option{--avoid=mbuiterf},
to avoid packaging modules that are not needed.

@node Strings with NUL characters
@subsection Strings with NUL characters

The GNU Coding Standards, section
@ifinfo
@ref{Semantics,,Writing Robust Programs,standards},
@end ifinfo
@ifnotinfo
@url{https://www.gnu.org/prep/standards/html_node/Semantics.html},
@end ifnotinfo
specifies:
@cartouche
Utilities reading files should not drop NUL characters, or any other
nonprinting characters.
@end cartouche

When it is a requirement to store NUL characters in strings, a variant
of the C strings is needed.  Gnulib offers a ``string descriptor'' type
for this purpose.  See @ref{Handling strings with NUL characters}.

All remarks regarding encodings and multibyte characters in the previous
section apply to string descriptors as well.

@include c-locale.texi

@node Comparison of string APIs
@subsection Comparison of string APIs

This table summarizes the API functions available for strings, in POSIX
and in Gnulib.

@mindex c-strtod
@mindex c-strtold
@mindex c32snrtombs
@mindex c32srtombs
@mindex c32stombs
@mindex c32swidth
@mindex mbscasecmp
@mindex mbscasestr
@mindex mbschr
@mindex mbscspn
@mindex mbslen
@mindex mbsncasecmp
@mindex mbsnlen
@mindex mbsnrtoc32s
@mindex mbsnrtowcs
@mindex mbspbrk
@mindex mbspcasecmp
@mindex mbsrchr
@mindex mbsrtoc32s
@mindex mbsrtowcs
@mindex mbssep
@mindex mbsspn
@mindex mbsstr
@mindex mbstoc32s
@mindex mbstok_r
@mindex mbstowcs
@mindex mbswidth
@mindex mbs_endswith
@mindex mbs_startswith
@mindex stpcpy
@mindex stpncpy
@mindex strcasecmp
@mindex strcasestr
@mindex strcspn
@mindex strdup
@mindex string-desc
@mindex strncasecmp
@mindex strncat
@mindex strndup
@mindex strnlen
@mindex strpbrk
@mindex strsep
@mindex strstr
@mindex strtod
@mindex strtof
@mindex strtoimax
@mindex strtok_r
@mindex strtol
@mindex strtold
@mindex strtoll
@mindex strtoul
@mindex strtoull
@mindex strtoumax
@mindex str_endswith
@mindex str_startswith
@mindex unicase/u32-casecmp
@mindex unistr/u32-mbsnlen
@mindex unistr/u32-endswith
@mindex unistr/u32-startswith
@mindex unistr/u32-stpcpy
@mindex unistr/u32-stpncpy
@mindex unistr/u32-strcat
@mindex unistr/u32-strchr
@mindex unistr/u32-strcmp
@mindex unistr/u32-strcoll
@mindex unistr/u32-strcpy
@mindex unistr/u32-strcspn
@mindex unistr/u32-strdup
@mindex unistr/u32-strlen
@mindex unistr/u32-strncat
@mindex unistr/u32-strncmp
@mindex unistr/u32-strncpy
@mindex unistr/u32-strnlen
@mindex unistr/u32-strpbrk
@mindex unistr/u32-strrchr
@mindex unistr/u32-strspn
@mindex unistr/u32-strstr
@mindex unistr/u32-strtok
@mindex uniwidth/u32-strwidth
@mindex wcpcpy
@mindex wcpncpy
@mindex wcscasecmp
@mindex wcscat
@mindex wcschr
@mindex wcscmp
@mindex wcscoll
@mindex wcscpy
@mindex wcscspn
@mindex wcsdup
@mindex wcslen
@mindex wcsncasecmp
@mindex wcsncat
@mindex wcsncmp
@mindex wcsncpy
@mindex wcsnlen
@mindex wcsnrtombs
@mindex wcspbrk
@mindex wcsrchr
@mindex wcsrtombs
@mindex wcsspn
@mindex wcsstr
@mindex wcstok
@mindex wcswidth
@mindex wcsxfrm

@multitable @columnfractions .17 .17 .17 .17 .16 .16
@headitem unibyte strings only
@tab assume C locale
@tab multibyte strings
@tab multibyte strings with NULs
@tab wide character strings
@tab 32-bit wide character strings

@item @code{strlen}
@tab @code{strlen}
@tab @code{mbslen}
@tab @code{sd_length}
@tab @code{wcslen}
@tab @code{u32_strlen}

@item @code{strnlen}
@tab @code{strnlen}
@tab @code{mbsnlen}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcsnlen}
@tab @code{u32_strnlen}, @code{u32_mbsnlen}

@item @code{strcmp}
@tab @code{strcmp}
@tab @code{strcmp}
@tab @code{sd_cmp}
@tab @code{wcscmp}
@tab @code{u32_strcmp}

@item @code{strncmp}
@tab @code{strncmp}
@tab @code{strncmp}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcsncmp}
@tab @code{u32_strncmp}

@item @code{strcasecmp}
@tab @code{strcasecmp}
@tab @code{mbscasecmp}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcscasecmp}
@tab @code{u32_casecmp}

@item @code{strncasecmp}
@tab @code{strncasecmp}
@tab @code{mbsncasecmp}, @code{mbspcasecmp}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcsncasecmp}
@tab @code{u32_casecmp}

@item @code{strcoll}
@tab @code{strcmp}
@tab @code{strcoll}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcscoll}
@tab @code{u32_strcoll}

@item @code{strxfrm}
@tab --
@tab @code{strxfrm}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcsxfrm}
@tab --

@item @code{strchr}
@tab @code{strchr}
@tab @code{mbschr}
@tab @code{sd_index}
@tab @code{wcschr}
@tab @code{u32_strchr}

@item @code{strrchr}
@tab @code{strrchr}
@tab @code{mbsrchr}
@tab @code{sd_last_index}
@tab @code{wcsrchr}
@tab @code{u32_strrchr}

@item @code{strstr}
@tab @code{strstr}
@tab @code{mbsstr}
@tab @code{sd_contains}
@tab @code{wcsstr}
@tab @code{u32_strstr}

@item @code{strcasestr}
@tab @code{strcasestr}
@tab @code{mbscasestr}
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --

@item
@c Special hack, to make this table line look reasonable in info mode.
@ifinfo
@code{str_
 startswith}
@end ifinfo
@ifnotinfo
@code{str_startswith}
@end ifnotinfo
@tab
@ifinfo
@code{str_
 startswith}
@end ifinfo
@ifnotinfo
@code{str_startswith}
@end ifnotinfo
@tab
@ifinfo
@code{mbs_
 startswith}
@end ifinfo
@ifnotinfo
@code{mbs_startswith}
@end ifnotinfo
@tab
@ifinfo
@code{sd_
 startswith}
@end ifinfo
@ifnotinfo
@code{sd_startswith}
@end ifnotinfo
@tab --
@tab
@ifinfo
@code{u32_
 startswith}
@end ifinfo
@ifnotinfo
@code{u32_startswith}
@end ifnotinfo

@item @code{str_endswith}
@tab @code{str_endswith}
@tab @code{mbs_endswith}
@tab @code{sd_endswith}
@tab --
@tab @code{u32_endswith}

@item @code{strspn}
@tab @code{strspn}
@tab @code{mbsspn}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcsspn}
@tab @code{u32_strspn}

@item @code{strcspn}
@tab @code{strcspn}
@tab @code{mbscspn}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcscspn}
@tab @code{u32_strcspn}

@item @code{strpbrk}
@tab @code{strpbrk}
@tab @code{mbspbrk}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcspbrk}
@tab @code{u32_strpbrk}

@item @code{strtok_r}
@tab @code{strtok_r}
@tab @code{mbstok_r}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcstok}
@tab @code{u32_strtok}

@item @code{strsep}
@tab @code{strsep}
@tab @code{mbssep}
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --

@item @code{strcpy}
@tab @code{strcpy}
@tab @code{strcpy}
@tab @code{sd_copy}
@tab @code{wcscpy}
@tab @code{u32_strcpy}

@item @code{stpcpy}
@tab @code{stpcpy}
@tab @code{stpcpy}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcpcpy}
@tab @code{u32_stpcpy}

@item @code{strncpy}
@tab @code{strncpy}
@tab @code{strncpy}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcsncpy}
@tab @code{u32_strncpy}

@item @code{stpncpy}
@tab @code{stpncpy}
@tab @code{stpncpy}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcpncpy}
@tab @code{u32_stpncpy}

@item @code{strcat}
@tab @code{strcat}
@tab @code{strcat}
@tab @code{sd_concat}
@tab @code{wcscat}
@tab @code{u32_strcat}

@item @code{strncat}
@tab @code{strncat}
@tab @code{strncat}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcsncat}
@tab @code{u32_strncat}

@item @code{free}
@tab @code{free}
@tab @code{free}
@tab @code{sd_free}
@tab @code{free}
@tab @code{free}

@item @code{strdup}
@tab @code{strdup}
@tab @code{strdup}
@tab @code{sd_copy}
@tab @code{wcsdup}
@tab @code{u32_strdup}

@item @code{strndup}
@tab @code{strndup}
@tab @code{strndup}
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --

@item @code{mbswidth}
@tab @code{mbswidth}
@tab @code{mbswidth}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcswidth}
@tab @code{c32swidth}, @code{u32_strwidth}

@item @code{strtol}
@tab @code{strtol}
@tab @code{strtol}
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --

@item @code{strtoul}
@tab @code{strtoul}
@tab @code{strtoul}
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --

@item @code{strtoll}
@tab @code{strtoll}
@tab @code{strtoll}
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --

@item @code{strtoull}
@tab @code{strtoull}
@tab @code{strtoull}
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --

@item @code{strtoimax}
@tab @code{strtoimax}
@tab @code{strtoimax}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcstoimax}
@tab --

@item @code{strtoumax}
@tab @code{strtoumax}
@tab @code{strtoumax}
@tab --
@tab @code{wcstoumax}
@tab --

@item @code{strtof}
@tab --
@tab @code{strtof}
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --

@item @code{strtod}
@tab @code{c_strtod}
@tab @code{strtod}
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --

@item @code{strtold}
@tab @code{c_strtold}
@tab @code{strtold}
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --

@item @code{strfromf}
@tab --
@tab @code{strfromf}
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --

@item @code{strfromd}
@tab --
@tab @code{strfromd}
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --

@item @code{strfroml}
@tab --
@tab @code{strfroml}
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --

@item --
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --
@tab @code{mbstowcs}
@tab @code{mbstoc32s}

@item --
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --
@tab @code{mbsrtowcs}
@tab @code{mbsrtoc32s}

@item --
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --
@tab @code{mbsnrtowcs}
@tab @code{mbsnrtoc32s}

@item --
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --
@tab @code{wcstombs}
@tab @code{c32stombs}

@item --
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --
@tab @code{wcsrtombs}
@tab @code{c32srtombs}

@item --
@tab --
@tab --
@tab --
@tab @code{wcsnrtombs}
@tab @code{c32snrtombs}

@end multitable

@node Characters
@section Characters

A @emph{character} is the elementary unit that strings are made of.

What is a character?  ``A character is an element of a character set''
is sort of a circular definition, but it highlights the fact that it is
not merely a number.  Although many characters are visually represented
by a single glyph, there are characters that, for example, have a
different glyph when used at the end of a word than when used inside a
word.  A character is also not the minimal rendered text processing
unit; that is a grapheme cluster and in general consists of one or more
characters.  If you want to know more about the concept of character and
various concepts associated with characters, refer to the Unicode
standard.

For the representation in memory of a character, various types have been
in use, and some of them were failures: @code{char} and @code{wchar_t}
were invented for this purpose, but are not the right types.
@code{char32_t} is the right type (successor of @code{wchar_t}); and
@code{mbchar_t} (defined by Gnulib) is an alternative for specific kinds
of processing.

@menu
* The char type::
* The wchar_t type::
* The char32_t type::
* The mbchar_t type::
* Comparison of character APIs::
@end menu

@node The char type
@subsection The @code{char} type

The @code{char} type is in the C language since the beginning in the
1970ies, but -- due to its limitation of 256 possible values -- is no
longer the adequate type for storing a character.

Technically, it is still adequate in unibyte locales.  But since most
locales nowadays are multibyte locales, it makes no sense to write a
program that runs only in unibyte locales.

ISO C and POSIX standardized an API for characters of type @code{char},
in @code{<ctype.h>}.  This API is nowadays useless and obsolete, when it
comes to general text processing.

The important lessons to remember are:

@cartouche
@emph{A @samp{char} is just the elementary storage unit for a string,
not a character.}
@end cartouche

@cartouche
@emph{Never use @code{<ctype.h>}!}
@end cartouche

@node The wchar_t type
@subsection The @code{wchar_t} type

The ISO C and POSIX standard creators made an attempt to overcome the
dead end regarding the @code{char} type.  They introduced
@itemize @bullet
@item
a type @samp{wchar_t}, designed to encapsulate a character,
@item
a ``wide string'' type @samp{wchar_t *}, with some API functions
declared in @posixheader{wchar.h}, and
@item
functions declared in @posixheader{wctype.h} that were meant to supplant
the ones in @posixheader{ctype.h}.
@end itemize

Unfortunately, this API and its implementation has numerous problems:

@itemize @bullet
@item
On Windows platforms and on AIX in 32-bit mode, @code{wchar_t} is a
16-bit type.  This means that it can never accommodate an entire Unicode
character.  Either the @code{wchar_t *} strings are limited to
characters in UCS-2 (the ``Basic Multilingual Plane'' of Unicode), or
-- if @code{wchar_t *} strings are encoded in UTF-16 -- a
@code{wchar_t} represents only half of a character in the worst case,
making the @posixheader{wctype.h} functions pointless.

@item
On Solaris and FreeBSD, the @code{wchar_t} encoding is locale dependent
and undocumented.  This means, if you want to know any property of a
@code{wchar_t} character, other than the properties defined by
@posixheader{wctype.h} -- such as whether it's a dash, currency symbol,
paragraph separator, or similar --, you have to convert it to
@code{char *} encoding first, by use of the function @posixfunc{wctomb}.

@item
When you read a stream of wide characters, through the functions
@posixfunc{fgetwc} and @posixfunc{fgetws}, and when the input
stream/file is not in the expected encoding, you have no way to
determine the invalid byte sequence and do some corrective action.  If
you use these functions, your program becomes ``garbage in - more
garbage out'' or ``garbage in - abort''.
@end itemize

As a consequence, it is better to use multibyte strings.  Such multibyte
strings can bypass limitations of the @code{wchar_t} type, if you use
functions defined in Gnulib and GNU libunistring for text processing.
They can also faithfully transport malformed characters that were
present in the input, without requiring the program to produce garbage
or abort.

@node The char32_t type
@subsection The @code{char32_t} type

The ISO C and POSIX standard creators then introduced the
@code{char32_t} type.  In ISO C 11, it was conceptually a ``32-bit wide
character'' type.  In ISO C 23, its semantics has been further
specified: A @code{char32_t} value is a Unicode code point.

Thus, the @code{char32_t} type is not affected the problems that plague
the @code{wchar_t} type.

The @code{char32_t} type and its API are defined in the @code{<uchar.h>}
header file.

ISO C and POSIX specify only the basic functions for the @code{char32_t}
type, namely conversion of a single character (@func{mbrtoc32} and
@func{c32rtomb}).  For convenience, Gnulib adds API for classification
and case conversion of characters.

GNU libunistring can also be used on @code{char32_t} values.  Since
@code{char32_t} is the same as @code{uint32_t}, all @code{u32_*}
functions of GNU libunistring are applicable to arrays of
@code{char32_t} values.

On glibc systems, use of the 32-bit wide strings (@code{char32_t[]}) is
exactly as efficient as the use of the older wide strings
(@code{wchar_t[]}).  This is possible because on glibc, @code{wchar_t}
values already always were 32-bit and Unicode code points.
@code{mbrtoc32} is just an alias of @code{mbrtowc}.  The Gnulib
@code{*c32*} functions are optimized so that on glibc systems they
immediately redirect to the corresponding @code{*wc*} functions.

@mindex uchar-h-c23
Gnulib implements the ISO C 23 semantics of @code{char32_t} when you
import the @samp{uchar-h-c23} module.  Without this module, it implements
only the ISO C 11 semantics; the effect is that on some platforms
(macOS, FreeBSD, NetBSD, Solaris) a @code{char32_t} value is the same
as a @code{wchar_t} value, not a Unicode code point.  Thus, when you
want to pass @code{char32_t} values to GNU libunistring or to some Unicode
centric Gnulib functions, you need the @samp{uchar-h-c23} module in order
to do so without portability problems.

@node The mbchar_t type
@subsection The @code{mbchar_t} type

Gnulib defines an alternate way to encode a multibyte character:
@code{mbchar_t}.  Its main feature is the ability to process a string or
stream with some malformed characters without reporting an error.

The type @code{mbchar_t}, defined in @code{"mbchar.h"}, holds a
character in both the multibyte and the 32-bit wide character
representation.  In case of a malformed character only the multibyte
representation is used.

@menu
* Reading multibyte strings::
@end menu

@node Reading multibyte strings
@subsubsection Reading multibyte strings

@mindex mbfile
If you want to process (possibly multibyte) characters while reading
them from a @code{FILE *} stream, without reading them into a string
first, the @code{mbfile} module is made for this purpose.

@node Comparison of character APIs
@subsection Comparison of character APIs

This table summarizes the API functions available for characters, in
POSIX and in Gnulib.

@mindex c-ctype
@mindex c32isalnum
@mindex c32isalpha
@mindex c32isblank
@mindex c32iscntrl
@mindex c32isdigit
@mindex c32isgraph
@mindex c32islower
@mindex c32isprint
@mindex c32ispunct
@mindex c32isspace
@mindex c32isupper
@mindex c32isxdigit
@mindex c32tolower
@mindex c32toupper
@mindex c32width
@mindex c32_apply_mapping
@mindex c32_apply_type_test
@mindex c32_get_mapping
@mindex c32_get_type_test
@mindex c32tolower
@mindex c32toupper
@mindex isblank
@mindex iswblank
@mindex iswctype
@mindex iswdigit
@mindex iswpunct
@mindex iswxdigit
@mindex mbchar
@mindex towctrans
@mindex wctrans
@mindex wctype
@mindex wcwidth

@multitable @columnfractions .2 .2 .2 .2 .2
@headitem unibyte character
@tab assume C locale
@tab wide character
@tab 32-bit wide character
@tab mbchar_t character

@item @code{== '\0'}
@tab @code{== '\0'}
@tab @code{== L'\0'}
@tab @code{== 0}
@tab @code{mb_isnul}

@item @code{==}
@tab @code{==}
@tab @code{==}
@tab @code{==}
@tab @code{mb_equal}

@item @code{isalnum}
@tab @code{c_isalnum}
@tab @code{iswalnum}
@tab @code{c32isalnum}
@tab @code{mb_isalnum}

@item @code{isalpha}
@tab @code{c_isalpha}
@tab @code{iswalpha}
@tab @code{c32isalpha}
@tab @code{mb_isalpha}

@item @code{isblank}
@tab @code{c_isblank}
@tab @code{iswblank}
@tab @code{c32isblank}
@tab @code{mb_isblank}

@item @code{iscntrl}
@tab @code{c_iscntrl}
@tab @code{iswcntrl}
@tab @code{c32iscntrl}
@tab @code{mb_iscntrl}

@item @code{isdigit}
@tab @code{c_isdigit}
@tab @code{iswdigit}
@tab @code{c32isdigit}
@tab @code{mb_isdigit}

@item @code{isgraph}
@tab @code{c_isgraph}
@tab @code{iswgraph}
@tab @code{c32isgraph}
@tab @code{mb_isgraph}

@item @code{islower}
@tab @code{c_islower}
@tab @code{iswlower}
@tab @code{c32islower}
@tab @code{mb_islower}

@item @code{isprint}
@tab @code{c_isprint}
@tab @code{iswprint}
@tab @code{c32isprint}
@tab @code{mb_isprint}

@item @code{ispunct}
@tab @code{c_ispunct}
@tab @code{iswpunct}
@tab @code{c32ispunct}
@tab @code{mb_ispunct}

@item @code{isspace}
@tab @code{c_isspace}
@tab @code{iswspace}
@tab @code{c32isspace}
@tab @code{mb_isspace}

@item @code{isupper}
@tab @code{c_isupper}
@tab @code{iswupper}
@tab @code{c32isupper}
@tab @code{mb_isupper}

@item @code{isxdigit}
@tab @code{c_isxdigit}
@tab @code{iswxdigit}
@tab @code{c32isxdigit}
@tab @code{mb_isxdigit}

@item --
@tab --
@tab @code{wctype}
@tab @code{c32_get_type_test}
@tab --

@item --
@tab --
@tab @code{iswctype}
@tab @code{c32_apply_type_test}
@tab --

@item @code{tolower}
@tab @code{c_tolower}
@tab @code{towlower}
@tab @code{c32tolower}
@tab --

@item @code{toupper}
@tab @code{c_toupper}
@tab @code{towupper}
@tab @code{c32toupper}
@tab --

@item --
@tab --
@tab @code{wctrans}
@tab @code{c32_get_mapping}
@tab --

@item --
@tab --
@tab @code{towctrans}
@tab @code{c32_apply_mapping}
@tab --

@item --
@tab --
@tab @code{wcwidth}
@tab @code{c32width}
@tab @code{mb_width}

@end multitable
